The textbook presents the fundamentals of thermodynamic processes most commonly used in the analysis and design of thermal equipment and machines. It also discusses gas solutions, phase transitions on the example of water vapour and compressible fluid flow. The textbook has been prepared mainly for students of mechanical engineering, mechanical construction and robotics, studying in English. However, as it covers the basics of the most important thermodynamic processes commonly occurring in technology, it can also be used by students of other technical faculties and engineers, especially those seeking a description of these issues in English.
W podręczniku przedstawiono podstawy procesów termodynamicznych najczęściej wykorzystywanych w analizach i projektowaniu urządzeń i maszyn cieplnych. Omówiono również zagadnienia roztworów gazów, przemian fazowych na przykładzie pary wodnej a także przepływu czynnika ściśliwego. Podręcznik został przygotowany głównie z myślą o studentach kierunków: mechanika, budowa maszyn i robotyka, studiujących w języku angielskim. Ponieważ jednak obejmuje on podstawy najważniejszych procesów termodynamicznych, powszechnie występujących w technice, może być wykorzystany również przez studentów innych kierunków technicznych a także inżynierów, w szczególności poszukujących opisu tych zagadnień w języku angielskim.
- Spis treści
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SYMBOLS 7
PREFACE 9
1. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 11
1.1. INTRODUCTION 11
1.2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 11
1.2.1. Matter 11
1.2.2. Thermodynamic Systems 13
1.2.3. State 14
1.2.4. Equilibrium 15
1.2.5. Process 15
1.3. FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF STATE – TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE 16
1.3.1. Concept of Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 16
1.3.2. Concept of Pressure 16
1.4. CONCEPTS OF HEAT AND WORK AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH ENERGY 17
1.5. CONSERVATION OF AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE AND BASES OF BALANCING 18
2. THERMODYNAMIC MEDIA AND EQUATION OF STATE 20
2.1. THERMODYNAMIC MEDIA 20
2.2. IDEAL GAS 22
2.3. EQUATION OF STATE OF IDEAL GAS 22
2.4. EQUATIONS OF STATE OF REAL GAS 27
2.4.1. Equation with the Compressibility Factor 27
2.4.2. Van der Waals Equation 29
3. SPECIFIC HEAT AND HEAT CAPACITY 31
3.1. CONCEPTS OF SPECIFIC HEAT AND HEAT CAPACITY 31
3.2. SPECIFIC HEAT OF IDEAL GASES 33
3.3. SPECIFIC HEAT AND MEAN SPECIFIC HEAT 36
4. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 41
4.1. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 41
4.2. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS, INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY AND WORK 42
4.2.1. Internal Energy – a Thermodynamic Property 43
4.2.2. Formulation of the First Law of Thermodynamics 45
4.2.3. Mechanical Work, External Work and Useful Work 46
4.2.4. The First Law of Thermodynamics for Closed Systems 49
4.2.5. Concepts of Flow Work and Enthalpy 50
4.2.6. The First Law of Thermodynamics for Open Systems 54
4.3. INTERNAL ENERGY AND ENTHALPY AS FUNCTIONS OF PARAMETERS OF STATE – CALORIFIC PARAMETERS OF STATE 55
4.3.1. Internal Energy 55
4.3.2. Enthalpy 57
4.4. KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY IN THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR OPEN SYSTEMS 58
5. NONREACTING GAS MIXTURES 61
5.1. DEFINING MIXTURE COMPOSITION 61
5.1.1. Mass Fraction – gi 61
5.1.2. Mole Fraction – zi 62
5.1.3. Relationships between Fractions 62
5.2. IDEAL GAS MIXTURES 63
5.2.1. Dalton’s Law 64
5.2.2. Amagat–Leduc’s Law 64
5.3. EQUATION OF STATE OF MIXTURE OF IDEAL GASES 66
5.4. CALORIFIC PARAMETERS OF STATE AND SPECIFIC HEAT OF MIXTURE OF IDEAL GASES 67
6. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES (TRANSFORMATIONS) 70
6.1. CHARACTERISTIC PROCESSES (TRANSFORMATIONS) OF IDEAL AND SEMIIDEAL GASES 71
6.1.1. Isothermal Process 71
6.1.2. Isochoric Process 74
6.1.3. Isobaric Process 76
6.1.4. Isentropic Process – Reversible Adiabatic Process 78
6.1.5. Polytropic Process 82
7. THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 89
7.1. REVERSIBILITY AND IRREVERSIBILITY IN NATURAL PROCESSES 89
7.1.1. Irreversible Processes 90
7.1.2. Reversible Processes 91
7.2. THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES 92
7.3. THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES 95
7.3.1. Thermal Efficiency of the Heat Engine (the Clockwise Cycle) 95
7.3.2. Thermal Efficiency of the Working Machine (the Counter-Clockwise Cycle) 96
7.4. STATEMENTS OF THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND CONCEPT OF THE ENTROPY 97
7.4.1. Concept of Entropy 98
7.5. ENTROPY CHANGE IN THE PROCESSES (TRANSFORMATIONS) OF IDEAL GAS 101
7.5.1. Isothermal Process 103
7.5.2. Isochoric Process 103
7.5.3. Isobaric Process 104
7.5.4. Adiabatic Process 105
7.5.5. Polytropic Process 105
7.6. CARNOT CYCLE 106
7.7. KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALE 110
8. WATER STEAM 112
8.1. PHASE TRANSITIONS OF WATER 112
8.2. THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF WATER STEAM 118
8.2.1. Specific Volume and Density of Steam 119
8.2.2. Calorific Parameters and Steam Diagrams 127
8.3. CLAPEYRON – CLAUSIUS EQUATION 132
8.4. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES (TRANSFORMATIONS) OF WATER STEAM 134
8.4.1. Isochoric Process 134
8.4.2. Isobaric Process 135
8.4.3. Isothermal Process 136
8.4.4. Isentropic Process 138
8.4.5. Irreversible Adiabatic Process 140
8.4.6. Throttling Process – Isenthalpic Expansion 141
9. FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUID 144
9.1. FUNDAMENTAL DEPENDENCIES 144
9.1.1. Energy Balance 145
9.1.2. Continuity Equation 145
9.1.3. Bernoulli’s Equation 146
9.1.4. Momentum Equation 148
9.2. STAGNATION PROPERTIES 149
9.2.1. Stagnation Temperature 150
9.2.2. Stagnation Pressure 150
9.3. VELOCITY OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER 153
9.4. ONE–DIMENSIONAL STEADY FLOW IN CONVERGING AND DIVERGING DUCTS 156
9.4.1. Effects of Area Change of Duct in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows 156
9.4.2. Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas in Converging and Converging–Diverging Nozzles 159
9.4.2.1. Outflow Velocity and Mass Flow Rate in Nozzles 159
9.4.2.2. Effect of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate and Critical Parameters 162
9.4.2.3. Converging Nozzle (Bendemann Nozzle) 166
9.4.2.4. Converging-Diverging Nozzle (de Laval Nozzle) 169
9.4.3. Flow of a Real Gas throughout the Nozzles 173
BIBLIOGRAPHY 177